Table 1 Embryonic and larval development of the main species of sea cucumbers used for evo-devo studies or aquaculture
Species | Area | T (°C) | 2 cells (min) | 4 cells (min) | Blastula (h) | Gastrula (h) | Auricularia (early–late, days) | Doliolaria (days) | Pentactula (days) | Juvenile (days) | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Planktotrophic | |||||||||||
 Holothuria atra | Indo-Pacific | 30 | 60–120 | 180–240 | 24 | na | 2–10 | 20 | na | na | [128] |
 Holothuria tubulosa | Atlantic NE, Mediterranean | 24 | 110 | 150 | 12 | 20 | 3–20 | 24 | 26 | 27–30 | [126] |
 Holothuria polii | Mediterranean | 24 | 90 | 120 | 12 | 20 | 3–7 | 8–9 | 9–10 | 15–90 | [127] |
 Holothuria forskali | Atlantic NE, Mediterranean | 17 | 120 | 240 | 24 | 36 | 4–35 | 36 | 42 | 43–120 | [85] |
 Holothuria scabra | Indo-Pacific | 25–27 | 60 | 120 | 5 | 12–14 | 2–12 | 12–13 | 13–15 | 14–17 | [129] |
 Apostichopus japonicus | Pacific NW (Japan, Korea, China) | 20–23 | 60 | 120 | 7–12 | 24 | 2–11 | 11–13 | 12–17 | 11–23 | [166] |
 Stichopus horrens | Indo-Pacific | 25–27 | 40–50 | 70–80 | 3,6 | 25 | 2–13 | 18–26 | 19–27 | 30 | [73] |
 Parastichopus californicus | Pacific NE | 10–12 | 240 | 360 | 24 | 40 | 6–13 | 60 | 24-48 h post doliolaria | 50d after settlement | [29] |
 Australostichopus mollis | New Zealand, South Australia | 18 | 40–60 | na | 5–6 | 25–36 | 56–16 | 18–20 | 21–23 | 24–27 | [142] |
Lecithotrophic | |||||||||||
 Athyonidium chilensis | Pacific SE (Chile) | 13 | 60–180 | 180–300 | 24–25 | 48–49 | – | 4–5 | 7 | 21–35 | [60] |
 Curcumaria frondosa | North Atlantic (Canada, Maine) | 0–13 | 390±60 | 510±78 | 48±3.6 | 72±8.5 | – | 8±1 | 11±1.5 | 46±2 | [62] |